Objectives for behavioral driver safety programs

By: Lawrence P. Lonero and Kathryn M. Clinton

Date: Tuesday, 29. December 2009

Larry Lonero and Kathryn Clinton are principals of Northport Associates, a consulting company based in Ontario, Canada.

Table of Contents

Behavior change in health and safety
Introduction
Changing behavior
Attitudes
Motivation
Models of behavior change

Learning (again) from health disciplines
The public health roots of road safety
Health promotion
Health promotion models
Applying a health promotion program model to driver behavior change

Objectives for behavioral driver safety programs
Appropriate outcome measures
Intermediate and ultimate objectives

Synergistic linking of behavioral influences
Facilitating protective behaviors

A conceptual model for managing driver influence programs
Legislation, enforcement, education, and reinforcement

Organizational behavior change for managing behavioral influences

Summary

Selected bibliography

Behavior change in health and safety

Introduction

In road safety there has been a tension between passive strategies, which engineer safer environments, and behavioral strategies, which try to influence people to act more safely. Passive approaches have been emphasized over the last three decades, partly because of the weak behavioral technologies available in the past. Leichter (1991) chronicled the 1960s history of the move toward vehicle safety and other passive measures in the U.S. and Britain. He quotes Ralph Nader on the relative merits of vehicle-focused and human-focused approaches to safety: "our society knows a great deal more about building safer machines than it does about getting people to behave safely." However, as the potential for further engineering improvements declines, it has become clear that modification of behavior is also essential to effective road safety management. Fortunately, research and development in a variety of fields can now provide a selection of potentially effective influence models and tools.

Much time and vast resources have been spent worldwide in search of a single, best behavioral approach, but it is clear that no single behavior influence technique can provide a "silver bullet" to solve all driver behavior problems. Influencing people to adopt safer, healthier, and environmentally-sustainable behaviors has become a major societal challenge. This experience shows that modifying individual human behaviors in support of the common good is a subtle and complex business. Even the simplest of behaviors is determined by a complex mix of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors. A clear conceptual structure for theory, research, and practice is needed to guide improvement of driver behavior and the management of road safety in general.

Return to Table of Contents

Changing behavior

Attitudes

In discussing behavior change the first need is to address the popular belief that risky driving and other injury-producing behavior is generally caused by attitudes. The common-sense belief seems to be that if only we could change attitudes, appropriate behavior would follow. Howarth (1988) has succinctly summarized the relation between attitudes and behavior as follows:

It has been frequently demonstrated that attitudes are easier to change than behavior and that a verbally expressed belief...may not be reflected in any increase in the related and easily observable behavior. In contrast it has frequently been demonstrated that changes in behavior, induced by environmental pressure, can lead to a change in verbally expressed attitudes, usually in the direction which justifies the new form of behavior (p.527).

A more recent OECD review of road safety attitude change measures came to similar conclusions (OECD, 1994). The OECD committee suggest that attitude has come to be used as an over-inclusive term to cover all internal causes of behavior and, as such, has little further value. Clearly, a much more comprehensive understanding of drivers' cognitive and motivational influences is needed for a successful approach to behavior change.

Motivation

Most of drivers' safety-related behaviors have important knowledge and ability components, and changes in behavior may require enhancing cognitive and psychomotor skills. However, motivational factors are most critical. Motives both energize and direct behavior. They are very important to high and consistent levels of performance in protective behaviors, and are critical to change. Strong motives typically compensate for weak abilities better than strong abilities compensate for weak motives. More effective safety promotion requires a clearer and more precise understanding of motives and of the internal and external handles through which they can be adjusted.

Two fundamental types of motivations are important. First are personal motivators, the wide range of individual drives and needs, both internal and external. Internal personal motivators include self-control and autonomy, personal values, risk tolerance, emotions, and stimulus seeking. External personal motivators include the utility functions of extrinsic incentives and disincentives.

Second are social-responsibility motivators, in which needs, benefits, and disbenefits beyond those of the individual come into play. Responsibility activators can involve culturally-determined influences-community values, leadership, conscientious role modeling, pro-social behavior, and other group functions, such as Geller's "active caring." The last is an effective concern with safe actions, especially for the safety of others rather than oneself (Geller, 1996).

All motivators must be carefully considered and addressed if an intervention is to be effective at the behavioral level. How an intervention is intended to affect these factors should be explicitly specified and supportable by theory and, ideally, by data.

Models of Behavior Change

Lonero et al. (1994) categorized general models of behavior change along a continuum between those that make explicit assumptions about internal, mental processes and those that do not. Examples of the first are cognitive models, such as Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1989), and Azjen and Fishbein's Theory of Reasoned Action, and its update, the Theory of Planned Behavior (see Parker et al., 1992). The behaviorist approach, which limits itself to externally observable events, avoiding mental concepts, is represented by Applied Behavior Analysis (e.g., Geller, 1988, 1996; Geller and Ludwig, 1990).

Positioned between behavioral and cognitive models are the risk, utility, decision, and game models. They focus on observable behavior and external influences, but they also postulate internal functions, such as subjective risk and expected utility. These models are largely descriptive and not behavior change models, in the sense that they do not deal primarily with learned, lasting changes. However, in describing functions of probabilities, payoffs, and choices, these models and can be viewed as prescriptions for behavior change (see Bjornskau and Elvik, 1988; Rothengatter, 1988; Wilde, 1985a; Wilde and Murdoch, 1982).

It is not possible to detail even the leading general behavior change models for the purposes of this paper. However, to gain a flavor of their applicability, we include Nelson and Moffit's (1988) outline of the implications of six models for increasing voluntary seat belt use:

• Theory of Reasoned Action: suggests determining individual attitudes to guide programs and to use significant others, such as peers, to reinforce belt use
• Health Belief Model: suggests stressing consequences of non-use, barriers to action, and providing cues to action
• Fear Arousal: suggests being sure users understand that seat belts work and to use moderate to high threat
• Applied Behavior Analysis: suggests using intermittent rewards, incentives in conjunction with education, family involvement, and group as well as individual rewards
• Social Learning Theory: suggests assessing outcome expectations, mounting information programs, skill training, modeling, self-monitoring, and behavioral contracting, and enhancing perceived locus of control
• Diffusion of Innovations: suggests promoting opportunities to participate in the innovation decision process and learn how-to skills and principle knowledge.

One major omission from this list is the Social Marketing approach to influencing behavior (Kotler & Roberto, 1989). This approach is a development of commercial marketing and market research, applying proven techniques of selling products to the selling of socially desirable ideas and practices. Lefebvre and Flora (1988) provided a distillation of social marketing into eight components:

1. consumer orientation
2. emphasis on voluntary exchanges of goods and services
3. research in audience analysis and segmentation
4. use of formative research in product or message design and the pretesting of these materials
5. analysis of distribution (or communication) channels
6. use of the "marketing mix" blending product, price, and promotion characteristics
7. process tracking system with both integrative and control functions
8. management through problem analysis, planning, implementation and feedback.

Models such as Social Marketing and Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers, 1983) operate at a broader, societal scale rather than focusing on individuals. The most comprehensive models come not from general behavior change theory but from the field of health promotion. Compared to road safety, health promotion is far ahead in theory and policy support, but it too is somewhat weak in empirically-proven effectiveness. The most comprehensive health promotion models are sufficiently broad and detailed to actually provide useful guidance in planning potentially effective influence programs for driver safety and other self-protective behaviors.

Return to Table of Contents

Learning (again) from health disciplines

The public health roots of road safety

Epidemiology and public health had a profound effect on the direction of road safety progress in the 1960s. Haddon's driver/vehicle/roadway model is a translation of the epidemiologists' host/agent/environment model of disease propagation.

Road safety focused on road improvements in the 1950s and 60s and vehicle standards in the 1970s. In the 1980s, vehicle standards rulemaking was much reduced in North America. The main preoccupations became behavioral: voluntary then mandatory seat belt use; and efforts to reduce impaired driving. The health field moved from infrastructure augmentation in the 1950s, through improving access to medical care in the 1960s, to containing medical costs in the 1970s.

Health promotion

The 1980s saw renewed concern with health-related behaviors, and lifestyles, and a rapid growth of health promotion theory and action. Health promotion is the behavioral offspring of public health and health education. It may now be past a (perhaps cyclical) peak of enthusiasm for behavioral solutions and moving toward a balance of behavioral, environmental, and policy approaches. Indeed, focus on behavior has been criticized as "blaming the victim" (e.g., Baker, 1981; NCIPC, 1989; Gielen, 1992; Robertson, 1987).

Jonah's (1990) introduction to a special issue of Health Education Research was entitled "Preventing road accident casualties: Integrating two solitudes." Jonah pointed out that research on health promotion and road safety have remained isolated from one another in most jurisdictions. A possible exception is the Canadian province of Quebec, which has had an active involvement of community health departments in road safety. Jonah proposed that the disparate fields have much to learn from one another, and that theories of common applicability could provide linkages. Jonah indicated that while education is a necessary program component, it is not enough, and that motivation needs to be "created" by persuasion, incentives, and deterrence.

Both health promotion and driver safety have seen some widespread improvements in some target behaviors in the 1980s. Examples are moderate smoking reduction and substantial seat belt use. For both however, individual behavior change has proven difficult. Unlike road safety, health promotion has strong, centralized policy support at all levels, because the economic stakes are seen to be so enormous. The stakes in road safety are high, but they are little known at policy levels in many jurisdictions. Health promotion policies typically recognize the contribution of road injuries to health problems, but so far the solutions they propose reflect poor understanding of road crashes, and they lack specificity and direct application.
Models and theories now abound to explain why and how to influence specific behaviors that may help one to become and stay safe and healthy. In contrast with driver safety, health promotion is, by definition, a combination of influences. The consensus of experts is that behavior change is most likely in comprehensive, multisectoral, participative, and socially-supported lifestyle interventions. This implies two conceptually simple but organizationally difficult factors are critical for success:

1) linking and coordinating of influences, and
2) longitudinal planning that builds on earlier gains.

While the health promotion field is relatively young, its literature is extensive, covering programs which attempt to influence all types of health-related behaviors including disease prevention (chronic heart disease, cancer, AIDS), diet and nutrition, fitness and active living, injury prevention, maternal/newborn care, smoking prevention and cessation, and alcohol and other substance abuse.

Health promotion models

Lonero et al. (1994) identified six categories of behavior change theories and models specifically aimed at health promotion:

1. Socio-psychological (e.g., Health Belief Model, Janz and Becker, 1984; Protection Motivation Theory, Rogers, 1983)
2. Ecological (e.g., Ecological Model for Health Promotion, McLeroy et al., 1988; Social Ecology of Health Promotion, Stokols, 1992; Socioenvironmental Approach, Labonte, 1993)
3. Program-oriented (e.g., PRECEDE/PROCEED, Green and Kreuter, 1991; MATCH, Simons-Morton et al., 1988)
4. Communication (e.g., Communications-Persuasion Matrix, McGuire, 1984; Communication-Behavior Change Approach, Solomon and Maccoby, 1984; Hyndman et al., 1993)
5. Second generation (e.g., Leventhal and Cameron, 1987; Siegrist, 1988; Godin and Shephard, 1990)
6. Integrative (e.g., Transtheoretical Model of Change, Prochaska et al., 1992; Theory of Health-Related Behavior Change, University of Edinburgh, 1989; Social Problem Solving Model, Ewart, 1990, 1991; Model of Positive Health, Seeman, 1989; System Model of Health Behavior Change, Kersell and Milsum, 1985; The Mandala of Health, Hancock and Perkins, 1985; Triadic Theory of Influence, Flay and Petraitis, 1993).

These are in addition to the more general behavior change models previously discussed. Health promotion reflects its roots in health education, and it subsumes various educational approaches, including school programs, mass media, social marketing, and community programs.

Applying a health promotion program model to driver behavior change

PRECEDE/PROCEED is a very comprehensive program model, and it serves as an example for development of the driver safety behavioral program outlined later (Green and Kreuter, 1991). PRECEDE stands for Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation. PROCEED stands for Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development. PRECEDE is an amalgamation of seven behavior change models and/or theories.

The identification of priorities and setting of objectives in the PRECEDE phases provide the criteria for policy, implementation and evaluation in the PROCEED phases. This model addresses the essential need for comprehensive program planning in effective behavior change programs. A series of phases in the planning, implementation and evaluation of health promotion programs is presented:

1. social diagnosis
2. epidemiological diagnosis
3. behavioral and environmental diagnosis
4. educational and organizational diagnosis
5. administrative and policy diagnosis
6. implementation
7. process evaluation
8. impact evaluation
9. outcome evaluation.

Theory and experience dictates that comprehensive behavior influence program planning must be based on:

• Different approaches (media, policy, program services)
• Delivery in different sites (schools, homes, health care settings, workplace, the community-at-large), and
• Ability to reach different target groups.

The framework of effective health promotion takes into account the multiple factors that shape health-related behaviors, and it assists with the identification of a specific subset of these factors as targets for intervention

Return to Table of Contents

Objectives for behavioral driver safety programs

Appropriate outcome measures

Both driver safety and health promotion have to confront the issues of defining successful outcomes. Is it enough to change apparently-related knowledge, attitudes, or even behavior, or must we also look for some ultimate measures of effectiveness, such as incidence of injury and disease, measures of well-being, or length of life before deciding that a program is effective?

It is important to draw distinctions between the different measures of effectiveness of driver safety programs, especially behavioral ones, as discussed more fully by Wilde (1993b). Influencing behavior is quite an accomplishment in its own right. However, it is possible to change behavior without changing losses or to change, say, losses per unit of exposure without changing other indicators, such as losses per capita. If driver safety is viewed as a public health or health cost issue, then per capita based loss measures are preferable. If we view driver safety as a transportation problem, mobility-based measures, such as deaths per kilometer driven, are preferred. One might imagine a broader, societal-level perspective, which trades off health and mobility concerns to maximize some higher societal value, but at present these trade offs occur only implicitly as part of political and bureaucratic decisions.

Intermediate and ultimate objectives

McCormick and Skrabenek (1988) reviewed the effects of the large-scale heart disease demonstration programs and concluded that the lack of reduction in age-adjusted mortality points to the failure of these programs. Gunning-Schepers et al., (1989) commented that the expectations of these programs were "too optimistic" that the multifaceted nature of risk, the time required for risk reduction, and the possibility of risk reduction independent of interventions may all explain a lack of apparent effect. These authors suggest that interventions cannot be assessed solely from the perspective of one risk factor. A program that reduces smoking will likely impact health as a totality, not only the reduction of cardiovascular disease. They also comment that intermediate outcomes, such as a healthier life and a more enjoyable lifestyle are appropriate health intervention goals. We have not yet seen analogous intermediate objective develop in road injury prevention.

Fries et al. (1989) suggested the primary purpose of most health promotion activities in developed societies is to improve quality of life, to "compress" morbidity, and to extend active life expectancy. They suggested that neither prevention nor curative interventions are particularly effective in reducing overall mortality rates today, but prevention can reduce morbidity, improve the quality of life, and save everyone money. Others have suggested that the predominant lifestyle approach aimed at voluntary behavior change is not the answer (McKinlay, 1993; Price et al., 1989). McKinlay commented,

As we struggle to find innovative approaches to primary and secondary prevention, focusing particularly on the individual at-risk behaviors of vulnerable subgroups of our society, it is important to be aware that we are dealing with only half the problem: government policies, organizational priorities and practices and professional behaviors may be more amenable to modification. ... Our challenge is to move beyond personal attributes and find ways to bring planned and gradual changes in the sociopolitical system into efforts at primary and secondary prevention (McKinlay, 1993, pp.110, 112-113).

It is clear that driver behavior is as much determined by social, economic, and cultural factors as are other health-related behaviors. Driver safety can learn from health promotion to focus on a broader view of well-being, rather than simply on the absence of disease or injury. A concept such as the efficient, responsible, or "coherent" driver could be a useful analog of the healthy person (e.g., Antonovsky, 1979; Seeman, 1989). The strength of natural linkages among various health and safety behaviors is not yet clear, but potential clustering of diverse protective behaviors should be considered when seeking to influence driver behavior.

Return to Table of Contents

Synergistic linking of behavioral influences

Facilitating protective behaviors

Influencing evolving social norms may support protective motives and a sort of response facilitation; that is, adopting one new behavior may make it easier to try another. While it remains to be demonstrated, it seems plausible that some one who has, say, spent time to keep fit and teach his/her children to cross roads safely might be more likely to take further actions to protect the "investment" they have already made in protection. Alternatively, there are also likely to be limits to how much an individual is willing to "spend" to reduce risk -as individuals, we may have a finite "protection budget."

There are a number of ways in which it would be desirable to link health and safety in pursuit of influencing drivers. First is through the transfer of the strongest change-change and program-planning models of health promotion to driver safety, which is relatively impoverished in terms of theory and comprehensive models.

The second desirable link is to improve the sophistication of knowledge where driver behaviors are adopted as an objective of injury prevention and other health promotion programs. Health-industry based road safety programs often seem well organized and intentioned but lacking in sophistication. For example, a trauma prevention group has been promoting advanced driver training, apparently unaware that such programs have often been shown to increase the incidence of crashes. The transfer of behavioral knowledge and technology between driver safety and health promotion should be a two-way exchange; neither field has a lock on the best information.

The third link is at the level of program operations, expanding comprehensive joint programs and resolving organizational barriers to more cooperative efforts in driver safety. The fourth needed link is at the level of individual protective behaviors and motives. If individuals have a finite protection budget-limited motivational or attentional capacity for self-protection -then this should be known and means of adding resources to this budget should be explored. If there is a societal trend toward individuals showing broader or stronger protective motivation, this should be jointly exploited for health and safety ends.

The critical variables to increase the potential of health promotion programs are well documented and some successes are evident. The clear consensus is that comprehensive, multifaceted community-based approaches are more effective than single intervention approaches. Interventions structured within a theoretical framework are more likely to be empirically grounded and perhaps more likely to demonstrate effects. Sensitivity to target group variables is essential, as are identification of barriers to adoption, responsiveness to environments, and policy support. The need for social and organizational change, as well as individual change, must be considered as should the potential for long-term change.

Health promotion starts out a step ahead of driver safety, in that by definition it is a combination of education and other influences. Both fields share the problems of finding efficient ways to put disparate influences together and keep them working together. Given the enormous and conspicuous costs of sickness care, the resources and motivation to accomplish these tough tasks have developed first in health promotion. Perhaps driver safety can benefit from its example.

Return to Table of Contents

A conceptual model for managing driver influence programs

Legislation, enforcement, education, and reinforcement

There are four broad classes of tools with which to influence driver behavior: legislation, enforcement, education, and reinforcement (or behavior analysis methods). Much evidence suggests that the tools are not currently used to the maximum of their capability. The range of possible behavior change program designs is large, and it is important to assess which tools show the most promise and in what combinations. It is becoming clear that the most promising possibilities are in the areas between, where they support each other in synergistic effects.

To change the factors influencing driver behavior, we have to be able to plan broadly and in considerable detail. A conceptual matrix may be useful for planning and managing behavioral influences. The three principal dimensions of the basic level of the matrix are: 1) Behavioral Performance Targets; 2) Change-Change Method Domains; and 3) Driver Population Segments.

The cells of the matrix would display existing or planned initiatives. The matrix could be used to examine linkages between initiatives in different domains, and to highlight program gaps and aid in achieving more comprehensive planning of change-change programs. The three principal dimensions of the matrix can be further broken down into more refined categories. For instance, any countermeasure program must be targeted to, or have special components for, specific population segments. For use in cataloguing or planning it would often be useful to further segment the target group rows, for instance by demographic, geographic, or other market-segment factors. For a given type of behavior, different population segments may have the behavior elicited by quite different environmental conditions and involve different motives. As a simple example, speeding may be supported primarily by economic motives for commercial drivers, while some young speeders may be seeking stimulation or competence-mastery feedback. For many countermeasures such differences could be critical to success.

The matrix can be extended to a fourth dimension to account for the wide range of organizations that deliver behavioral interventions to drivers. Some interventions are delivered by several organizations in a single jurisdiction, e.g., driver safety education of different types is delivered by government departments, police, municipalities, community groups, insurance companies, private safety associations, motor clubs, manufacturers, fast food outlets, and so on. Gaps, duplications, overlaps, and synergistic linkages could be identified on the organizational dimension. For active management of a comprehensive program it would be more efficient to maintain the matrix in an electronic database.

Return to Table of Contents

Organizational behavior change for managing behavioral influences

The critical management issues for the future of driver safety are coordination, evaluation, and accountability. Coordination is critical because the multicausal nature of driver behavior requires multifaceted programs for effective change. Coordination of programs, however, runs against organizational boundaries and bureaucratic interests. This expands behavior change to include the tougher problems of organizational behavior change. Safety management may have to find out what various stakeholder organizations need to support their own specific objectives and help provide it as exchange for the organizations' support of safety objectives. Organizations respond to incentives and disincentives as reliably as do individuals.

Evaluation is critical for behavioral interventions. Large-scale behavioral interventions should be seen as experiments and evaluated as such. No behavioral program, however carefully planned, can be assumed to work without empirical data. The influence process is too complex to rely on simple program standards, manual specifications, or cookbook solutions. If there is to be progress in driver safety management, it will be knowledge driven. The knowledge for continued refinement of behavioral technology will only become available through objective, empirical evaluation. All behavior change methods should be seen as experimental.

Accountability for safety outcomes is critical because organizations, like individuals, will only change their approach when they are motivated to do so. The "payoffs" received by organizations with responsibility for driver safety are rarely contingent upon success in reducing the severity of the problem. Transfer of behavioral technology, coordination of multifaceted programs, and evaluation and refinement of interventions will not likely occur under existing organizational structures. Techniques of organizational behavior change are needed to support individual behavior change as part of effective driver safety management.

Brown (1986) concluded his Ergonomics Society Lecture with this statement,

...our current problems in road safety seem largely institutional...Road safety thus appears to have a low status among government policy makers and I can see little prospect of improving safety until this roadblock is removed, perhaps by the creation of a separate government department with overall responsibility for transport safety (p.1503).

While Brown's suggestion sounds at first like a prescription for further bureaucratizing of driver safety, he supports it by pointing out the need for accountability for safety. Without accountability there is no need to evaluate programs, and without evaluation there can be little progress toward more effective programs.

As an example of the steps required to manage development of effective behavior change, an iterative, "adaptive programming" model was identified, shown in Figure 1, pg 11. The process outlined is analogous to the PRECEDE/PROCEED health promotion planning model (Green and Kreuter, 1991). It differs from typical program planning in driver safety in broad priority setting and empirical diagnosis of current behaviors (and underlying influences). The model assesses the organizational environment as part of the background to planning. It stresses formative and summative evaluation, with feedback and adaptive revision. The evaluations shown in Phases 9 and 12 feed back outcome information and social validity/acceptability information.

If a behavior change intervention is successful in the initial operational implementation, then monitoring probes and maintenance plans will be needed to sustain the effects.

If outcome evaluation shows loss of effect between pilot and operational implementation, scale or organizational problems would be assessed and refinements sought at the level of Phase 10 and a re-refined design and organization implemented. The process and organization would learn and develop as it functions and receives feedback. "Adaptive programming" is guided by theory initially, but frequent feedback on results provides an ongoing reality check and shapes the operational program empirically.

Critical details of influence programs are partially predictable from known principles of behavioral psychology, making technology transfer crucial and rewarding. Driver behavior can be influenced, but lasting safety improvements will only result from interventions that enhance motivation, internal controls, and social norms. These major impacts are not easily achieved, and they are only possible with astute management and adaptive programs.

Legislation, enforcement, reinforcement, and education all have strong potential for influencing driver behavior and moving it in desirable directions. However, much of the potential will be wasted if they are allowed to operate in isolation. Community-based programs provide useful examples for coordination of interventions at the local level, but wider examples at the provincial or state level in North America are rare. Organizational behavior change will ultimately be as important as individual behavior change in determining the future of effective driver influence programs.

Return to Table of Contents

Summary

The purpose of this paper was to provide an introduction to the theoretical and empirical bases for intervention development likely to change drivers" behavior and reduce injuries in road accidents. General models and those directed to health and safety-related behaviors were reviewed, as well as behavior change programs and related societal responses, such as legislation and enforcement. The effects of legislation and enforcement are limited by psychological, social, economic, and political realities, but effects can be enhanced through strategic linkages with other influences. Various forms of health and safety education were reviewed, and only the most sophisticated programs seem to have measurable effects. The potential of incentive programs, prompting, feedback, participation, and other analytic-analytic methods were assessed and found to be the most promising among isolated interventions, but these methods are rarely applied in government or other large-scale safety programs.

Health promotion starts out a step ahead of road safety, being a combination of education and other influences, and having developed the most comprehensive planning models. There are many benefits to be gained from linking health and safety influences. Habitual, health and safety related behaviors are so strongly determined that a broad range of influences must be applied to effect lasting change. While some influences are inherently stronger than others, few work well all alone, and most can add weight to a well-planned multifaceted program. Organizational behavior change is needed to permit coordinated influence programs. What is needed for effective safety management is a varied, optimized "portfolio" of behavioral influences that takes advantage of the strengths of each and of synergistic effects between them. Lasting positive influence is most likely in a dynamic "adaptive programming" management environment.

Return to Table of Contents

Selected bibliography

Adams, J.G.U. (1982). The efficacy of seat belt legislation. SAE Report #820819.

Ampofo-Boateng, K., & Thomson, J.A. (1989). Child pedestrian accidents: A case for preventive medicine. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 265-274.

Antaki, C., Morris, P.E., & Flude, B.M. (1986). The effectiveness of the "Tufty Club" in road safety education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 363-365.

Antonovsky, A. (1984). The sense of coherence as a determinant of health. In J.D. Matarazzo, S.M. Weiss, J.A. Herd, N.E. Miller & S.M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 116-129). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Baker, S.P. (1981). Childhood injuries: The community approach to prevention. Journal of Public Health Policy, September, 236-246.

Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, September, 1175-1184.

Bass, R., & Anderson, P.W. (1986). Car seat education and rental program: A county approach. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 3, 293.

Baxter, J.S., Manstead, A.S.R., Stradling, S.G., Campbell, K.A., Reason, J.T., & Parker, D. (1990). Social facilitation and driver behavior. British Journal of Psychology, 81, 351-360.

Benfari, R.C. (1981). The multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT): III. The model for intervention. Preventive Medicine, 10, 426-442.

Bjornskau, T., & Elvik, R. (1992). Can road traffic law enforcement permanently reduce the number of accidents? Accident Analysis and Prevention, 24, 5, 507-520.

Blomquist, G. (1986). A utility maximization model of driver traffic safety behavior. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 18, 5, 371-375.

Bonnie, R.J. (1985). The efficacy of law as a paternalistic instrument. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 33, 131-211.

Booth, W.L. (1983). Effects of police visibility on driver behavior. The Police Chief, January, 42-46.

Bower, G.H. (1991). Incentive programs for promoting safer driving. In M.J. Koornstra & J. Christensen (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Road Safety Symposium in Copenhagen, Denmark, September 19-21. Leidschendam, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.

Bowman, J.A., Sanson-Fisher, R.W., & Webb, G.R. (1987). Interventions in preschools to increase the use of safety restraints by preschool children. Pediatrics, 79, 1, 103-109.

Brown, I.D. (1986). Prospects for improving road safety. Ergonomics, 29, 12, 1495-1505.

Brown, I.D. (1989). How can we train safe driving? Inaugural Address presented at the appointment to the Special Chair in Traffic Science at the University of Groningen, The Netherlands, October 24, 1989. Haren, The Netherlands: University of Groningen.

Brown, I.D., & Groeger, J.A. (1988). Risk perception and decision taking during the transition between novice and experienced driver status. Ergonomics, 31, 4, 585-597.

Burns, M. (1985). Field sobriety tests: An important component of DUI enforcement. Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving, 1, 3, 21-25.

Campbell, B.J. (1981). An attempt to evaluate the impact on accidents of various selective traffic enforcement projects funded by the North Carolina Governor's Highway Program and carried out by several North Carolina cities (Report No: HS-034 557). Raleigh, North Carolina: Governor's Highway Safety Program.

Canadian Council of Motor Transport Administrators (CCMTA). (1990). National Occupant Restraint Program. Ministers Responsible for Transportation and Highway Safety.

Carleton, R.A., Lasater, T.M., Assaf, A., Lefebvre, R.C., & McKinlay, S.M. (1987). The Pawtucket Heart Health Program: I. An experiment in population-based disease prevention. Rhode Island Medical Journal, 70, December, 533-538.

Carr, A.F., Schnelle, J.F., & Kirchner Jr., R.E. (1980). Police crackdowns and slowdowns: A naturalistic evaluation of changes in police traffic enforcement. Behavioral Assessment, 2, 33-41.

Clark, A.W., & Powell, R.J. (1984). Changing drivers' attitudes through peer group decision. Human Relations, 37, 2, 155-162.

Cope, J.G., Grossnickle, W.F., & Geller, E.S. (1986). An evaluation of three corporate strategies for safety belt use promotion. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 18, 3, 243-251.

Cope, J.G., Johnson, A.W., & Grossnickle, W.F. (1990). Behavior engineering proposals: Three effects on drivers and passengers of a mandatory use law for safety belts. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 291-298.

Cormack, J.S., Cooper, P.J., & Cote, D. (1992). Changing young driver attitudes and behavior: Traffic safety program development and application at the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia. Presented at the International Conference on Automobile Insurance and Road Accident Prevention, Amsterdam, April 6-8, 1992. North Vancouver, Canada: Insurance Corporation of British Columbia.

Cross, R.T., & Pitkethly, A. (1991). Concept modification approach to pedestrian safety: A strategy for modifying young children's existing conceptual framework of speed. Research in Science & Technological Education, 9, 1, 93-106.

Cushman, R., Down, J., MacMillan, N., & Waclawik, H. (1990). Bicycle-related injuries: A survey in a pediatric emergency department. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 143, 2, 108-112.

Cushman, R., James, W., & Waclawik, H. (1991). Physician promoting bicycle helmets for children: A randomized trial. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 8, 1044-1048.

DiGuiseppi, C.G., Rivara, F.P., Koepsell, T.D., & Polissar, L. (1989). Bicycle helmet use by children: Evaluation of a community-wide helmet campaign. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 16, 2256-2261.

Donelson, A.C., & Mayhew, D.R. (1987). Driver improvement as post-licensing control: The state of knowledge. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications.

Dussault, C. (1990). Effectiveness of a selective traffic enforcement program combined with incentives for seat belt use in Quebec. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 217-223.

Dussault, C. (1993). The apple of social marketing. The Safety Network, 9, 1, 3-4.

Eddy, J.M., Marotto, D.A., & Beltz, S.M. (1988). Analysis of the effectiveness of a safety belt incentive program at Cigna Corporation. American Journal of Health Promotion, Winter, 31-38.

Elman, D., & Killebrew, T.J. (1978). Incentives and seat belts: Changing a resistant behavior through extrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 1, 72-83.

Engel, R. (1980). Summary of traffic enforcement literature. Ottawa, Canada: Solicitor General of Canada.

Evans, L. (1985). Factors controlling traffic crashes. Warren, MI: Transportation Research Department, General Motors Research Laboratories.

Evans, W.N., Neville, D., & Graham, J.D. (1991). General deterrence of drunk driving: Evaluation of recent American policies. Risk Analysis, 11, 2, 279-289.

Ewart, C.K. (1990). A social problem-solving approach to behavior change in coronary heart disease. In S.A. Shumaker, E.B. Schron, J.K. Ockene, C.T. Parker, J.L. Probstfield & J.M. Wolle (Eds.), The handbook of health behavior change (pp. 153-190). New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Ewart, C.K. (1991). Social action theory for a public health psychology. American Psychologist, 46, 9, 931-946.

Farquhar, J.W. (1991). The Stanford Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Programs. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 623, 327-331.

Ferguson, B., & Blampied, N.M. (1991). Unenlightened: An unsuccessful attempt to promote the use of cycle lights at night. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 23, 6, 561-571.

Fincham, S. (1992). Community health promotion programs. Social Science Medicine, 35, 3, 239-249.

Flay, B.R., & Petraitis, J. (1993). The theory of triadic influence: A new theory of health behavior with implication for preventive interventions. In G.L. Albrecht (Ed.), Advances in medical sociology. Vol.IV: A reconsideration of models of health behavior change. Greenwich, CN: JAI Press.

Foss, R.D. (1989). Evaluation of a community-wide incentive program to promote safety restraint use. American Journal of Public Health, 79, 3, 304-306.

Freedman, M., Williams, A.F., & Lund, A.K. (1990). Public opinion regarding photo radar. In Transportation Research Record 1270 (pp. 59-65). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Friedland, M.L., Trebilcock, M., & Roach, K. (1990). Regulating traffic safety. In M.L. Friedland (Ed.), Securing compliance: Seven case studies (pp. 165-324). Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press.

Fries, J.F., Green, L.W., & Levine, S. (1989). Health promotion and the compression of morbidity. The Lancet, March 4, 481-483.

Fuller, R. (1984). A conceptualization of driving behavior as threat avoidance. Ergonomics, 27, 11, 1139-1155.

Galizio, M., Jackson, L.A., & Steele, F.O. (1979). Enforcement symbols and driving speed: The overreaction effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 3, 311-315.

Gander, J.P. (1985). Highway speed and uncertainty of enforcement: The travelling salesman (or trucker) case. Logistics and Transportation Review, 22, 1, 43-55.

Garber, S., & Graham, J.D. (1990). The effects of the new 65 mile-per-hour speed limit on rural highway fatalities: A state-by-state analysis. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 22, 2, 137-149.

Geller, E.S. (1983). Rewarding safety belt usage at an industrial setting: Tests of treatment generality and response maintenance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 2, 189-202.

Geller, E.S. (1984). A delayed reward strategy for large-scale motivation of safety belt use: A test of long-term impact. Accident Analysis and Prevention 16, 5/6, 457-463.

Geller, E.S. (1988). A behavioral science approach to transportation safety. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 64, 7, 632-661.

Geller, E.S. (1990). Preventing injuries and deaths from vehicle crashes: Encouraging belts and discouraging booze. Social Influence Processes and Prevention, 1, 249-277.

Geller, E.S. (1996).The Psychology of Safety: How to Improve behaviors and attitudes on the job. Radnor, Pennsylvania, Chilton.

Geller, E.S., Berry, T.D., Ludwig, T.D., Evans, R.E., Gilmore, M.R., & Clarke, S.W. (1990). A conceptual framework for developing and evaluating behavior change interventions for injury control. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 125-137.

Geller, E.S., Bruff, C.D., & Nimmer, J.G. (1985). "Flash for Life": Community-based prompting for safety belt promotion. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 4, 309-314.

Geller, E.S., Davis, L., & Spicer, K. (1983). Industry-based incentives for promoting seat belt use: Differential impact on white-collar versus blue-collar employees. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 5, 1, 17-29.

Geller, E.S., Elder, J.P., Hovell, M.F., & Sleet, D.A. (1991). Behavior change approaches to deterring alcohol-impaired driving. Advances in Health Education and Promotion, 3, 45-68.

Geller, E.S., Johnson, R.P., & Pelton, S.L. (1982a). Community-based interventions for encouraging safety belt use. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 183-195.

Geller, E.S., Kalsher, M.J., Rudd, J.R., & Lehman, G.R. (1989). Promoting safety belt use on a university campus: An integration of commitment and incentive strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 1, 3-19.

Geller, E.S., & Lehman, G.R. (1991). The buckle-up promise card: A versatile intervention for large-scale behavior change. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 91-94.

Geller, E.S., & Ludwig, T.D. (1990). A behavior change taxonomy for improving road safety. In M.J. Koornstra & J. Christensen (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Road Safety Symposium in Copenhagen, Denmark, September 19-21. Leidschendam, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.

Geller, E.S., Paterson, L., & Talbott, E. (1982b). A behavioral analysis of incentive prompts for motivating seat belt use. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 3, 403-415.

Geller, E.S., Rudd, J.R., Kalsher, M.J., Streff, F.M., & Lehman, G.R. (1987). Employer-based programs to motivate safety belt use: A review of short-term and long term effects. Journal of Safety Research, 18, 1-17.

Gemming, M.G., Runyan, C.W., Hunter, W.W., & Campbell, B.J. (1984). A community health education approach to occupant protection. Health Education Quarterly, 11, 2, 147-158.

General Accounting Office. (1991). Highway safety: Motorcycle helmet laws save lives and reduce costs to society (Report No. GAO/RCED-91-170). Gaithersburg, Maryland: General Accounting Office.

Gielen, A.C. (1992). Health education and injury control: Integrating approaches. Health Education Quarterly, 19, 2, 203-218.

Godin, G., & Shephard, R.J. (1990). Use of attitude-behavior models in exercise promotion. Sports Medicine, 10, 2, 103-121.

Grant, B.A. (1990). Effectiveness of feedback and education in an employment based seat belt program. Health and Education Research, 5, 2, 197-205.

Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M.W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and environmental approach. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Greene, B.F., Bailley, J.S., & Barber, F. (1981). An analysis and reduction of disruptive behavior on school buses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 2, 177-192.

Guerin, D., & MacKinnon, D.P. (1985). An assessment of the California child passenger restraint requirement. American Journal of Public Health, 75, 2, 142-144.

Gunning-Schepers, L.J., Barendregt, J.J., & van der Maas, P.J. (1989). Population interventions reassessed. The Lancet, March 4, 479-483.

Hagenzieker, M.P. (1991). Enforcement or incentives? Promoting safety belt use among military personnel in the Netherlands. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 1, 23-30.

Hagenzieker, M.P. (1992). Drivers' opinions of enforcement and incentive strategies to promote safety belt use. Journal of Safety Research, 23, 4, 199-206.

Hale, A.R. (1991). Modifying individual road user behavior. In M.J. Koornstra & J. Christensen (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Road Safety Symposium in Copenhagen, Denmark, September 19-21. Leidschendam, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.

Hall, W.L., Lowrance, J.C., Suttles, D.T., & Orr, B.T. (1990). Comprehensive Program for Increasing Use of Safety Seats and Seat Belts for Children and Young Adults. University of North Carolina, Highway Safety Research Center, HSRC-PR169.

Hall, W.L., & Stewart, J.R. (1991). Effects of child passenger safety and seat belt legislation on fatalities and serious injuries to children involved in North Carolina crashes. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Toronto, Canada, October 7-9 (pp. 11-25). Des Plaines, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine.

Hancock, T., & Perkins, F. (1985). The mandala of health: A conceptual model and teaching tool. Health Education, Summer, 8-10.

Harano, R.M., & Hubert, D.E. (1974). An evaluation of California's "Good Driver" Incentive Program (Report No. 6). Sacramento, CA: California Department of Motor Vehicles.

Hauer, E., Ahlin, F.J., & Bowser, J.S. (1982). Speed enforcement and speed choice. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 14, 4, 267-278.

Hauer, E., & Cooper, P.J. (1977). Effectiveness of selective enforcement in reducing accidents in Metropolitan Toronto. In Transportation Research Record 643 (pp. 18-22). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Higham, S. (1980). Education is the key (Motorcycle Safety Course). Driver, 14, 4, 8-9.

Hingson, R.W., Howland, J., & Levenson, M.P.H. (1988a). Effects of legislative reform to reduce drunken driving and alcohol-related traffic fatalities. Public Health Reports, 103, 6, 659-667.

Hingson, R., Howland, J., Morelock, S., & Heeren, T. (1988b). Legal interventions to reduce drunken driving and related fatalities among youthful drivers. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 4, 2, 87-98.

Homel, R. (1986). Policing the drinking driver: Random breath testing and the process of deterrence. Canberra, Australia: Federal Office of Road Safety.

Homel, R. (1988). Policing and punishing the drinking driver: A study of general and specific deterrence. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.

Hool, J.N.L., Maghsoodloo, S., Veren, A.D., & Brown, D.B. (1983). Analysis of selective enforcement strategy effects on rural Alabama traffic speeds. In Transportation Research Record 910 (pp. 74-88). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Howarth, C.I. (1988). The relationship between objective risk, subjective risk and behavior. Ergonomics, 31, 4, 527-535.

Hunter, W.W., Campbell, B.J., Gemming, M.G., & Stewart, J.R. (1984). "Seat belts pay off": The evaluation of a community wide incentive program. In 28th Annual Proceedings of the American Association for Automotive Medicine, October 8-10 (pp. 23-31). Denver, CO: American Association for Automotive Medicine.

Hunter, W.W., Stewart, J.R., Stutts, J.C., Marchetti, L.M., Little, C., & Reinfurt, D.W. (1991). Non-sanction seat belt law enforcement: A modern day tale of two cities. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, October 7-9, Toronto, Canada (pp. 57-76). Des Plaines, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine.

Hunter, W.W., & Stutts, J.C. (1982). Use of economic incentives to modify safety belt use behavior. In The 26th Annual Proceedings of the American Association for Automotive Medicine, October 4-6 (pp. 249-265). Ottawa, Canada: American Association for Automotive Medicine.

Hunter, W.W., Stutts, J.C., Stewart, J.R., & Rodgman, E.A. (1990). Characteristics of seat belt users and non-users in a state with a mandatory belt use law. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 161-173.

Hunter, W.W., & Woodward, A.R. (1986). High school seat belt incentive programs: The 1985-1986 Year. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center.

Hurst, P.M. (1980b). Can anyone reward safe driving? Accident Analysis and Prevention, 12, 217-220.

Hyndman, B., Libstug, A., Giesbrecht, N., Hershfield, L., & Rootman, I. (1993). The use of social science theory to develop health promotion programs. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Health.

Janke, M.K. (1990). Safety effects of relaxing California's clean-record requirement for driver license renewal by mail. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 22, 4, 335-349.

Janssen, W.H., & Tenkink, E. (1988a). Considerations on speed selection and risk homeostasis in driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 20, 2, 137-142.

Janssen, W.H., & Tenkink, E. (1988b). Risk homeostasis theory and its critics: Time for an agreement. Ergonomics, 31, 4, 429-433.

Janz, N.K., & Becker, M.H. (1984). The health belief model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11, 1, 1-47.

Johnson, R.P., & Geller, E.S. (1984). Contingent versus noncontingent rewards for promoting seat belt usage. Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 113-122.

Jonah, B.A. (1990). Preventing road accident casualties: Integrating two solitudes. Health Education Quarterly, 5, 109-110.

Jonah, B.A., Dawson, N.E., & Bragg, B.W.E. (1982a). Are formally trained motorcyclists safer? Accident Analysis and Prevention, 14, 4, 247-255.

Jonah, B.A., Dawson, N.E., MacGregor, C.G., & Wilde, G.J.S. (1982b). Promoting seat belt use: A comparison of three approaches. In 26th Proceedings of the American Association for Automotive Medicine, Ottawa, Canada, October 4-6 (pp. 167-181). Arlington Heights, IL: American Association for Automotive Medicine.

Jonah, B.A., & Grant, B.A. (1985). Long-term effectiveness of selective traffic enforcement programs for increasing seat belt use. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 2, 257-263.

Jonah, B.A., Lawson, J.J. (1984). The effectiveness of the Canadian mandatory seat belt use laws. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 16, 5/6, 433-450.

Kalfus, G.R., Ferrari, J.R., Arean, P., Balser, D., Cotronea, R., Franco, M., & Hill, W. (1987). An examination of the New York mandatory seat belt law on a university campus. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 1, 63-67.

Kalsher, M.J., Geller, E.S., Clarke, S.W., & Lehman, G.R. (1989). Safety belt promotion on a naval base: A comparison on incentives vs. disincentives. Journal of Safety Research, 20, 103-113.

Karan, B.S., & Kopelman, R.E. (1986). The effects of objective feedback on vehicular and industrial accidents: A field experiment using outcome feedback. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8, 1, 45-56.

Kelsey, S.L., Janke, M., Peck, R.C., & Ratz, M. (1985). License extensions for clean-record drivers: A 4-year follow-up. Journal of Safety Research, 16, 149-167.

Kersell, M.W., & Milsum, J.H. (1985). A systems model of health behavior change. Behavioral Science, 30, 119-126.

King, A.J.C., & Coles, B. (1992). The health of Canada's youth: Views and behaviors of 11, 13 and 15 year olds from 11 countries. Ottawa, Canada: Supply and Services Canada.

Kirkham, R.W., & Landauer, A.A. (1985). Sex differences in the distribution of traffic law enforcement. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 17, 3, 211-215.

Klitzner, M.D., & Vegega, M.E. (1985). Youth anti-drinking-driving programs: An examination of program assumptions. In 29th Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Automotive Medicine, October 7-9. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Automotive Medicine.

Kobayashi, M., & Chua, C.K. (1989). The Singapore Safety Driving Centre (SSDC): An example of Japan-Singapore technical cooperation in driver training. IATSS Research, 13, 1, 39-49.

Kotler, P., & Roberto, E.L. (1989). Social marketing - Strategies for changing public behavior. New York: The Free Press.

Kunreuther, H. (1985). Incentives for improving driving behavior ex ante/ex post considerations. In L. Evans & R. Schwing (Eds.), Human behavior and traffic safety. New York: Plenum Press.

Labonte, R. (1993). Health promotion and empowerment: Practice frameworks. Issues in Health Promotion Series, Toronto, Ontario: Centre for Health Promotion and ParticipACTION.

Lamm, R., & Kloeckner, J.H. (1984). Increase of traffic safety by surveillance of speed limits with automatic radar devices on a dangerous section of a German autobahn: A long-term investigation. In Transportation Research Record 974 (pp.8-16). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Larson, L.D., Schnelle, J.F., Kirchner, Jr., R., Carr, A.F., Domash, M., & Risley, T.R. (1980). Reduction of police vehicle accidents through mechanically aided supervision. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 4, 571-581.

Lasater, T., Abrams, D., Artz, L., Beaudin, P., Cabrera, L., Elder, J., Ferreira, A., Knisley, P., Peterson, G., Rodrigues, A., Rosenberg, P., Snow, R., & Carleton, R. (1984). Lay volunteer delivery of a community-based cardiovascular risk factor change program: The Pawtucket experiment. In J.D. Matarazzo, S.M. Weiss, J.A. Herd, N.E. Miller & S.M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 1166-1170). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Lave, C. & Elias, P. (1994). Did the 65 MPH speed limit save lives? Accident Analysis and Prevention, 26, 1, 49-62.

Lee, D.N., Young, D.S., & McLaughlin, C.M. (1984). A roadside simulation of road crossing for children. Ergonomics, 27, 12, 1271-1281.

Lefebvre, R.C., & Flora, J.A. (1988). Social marketing and public health intervention. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 3, 299-315.

Lefebvre, R.C., Lasater, T.M., Carleton, R.A., & Peterson, G. (1987). Theory and delivery of health programming in the community: The Pawtucket Heart Health Program. Preventive Medicine, 16, 80-95.

Lehman, G.R., & Geller, E.S. (1990b). Participative education for children: An effective approach to increase safety belt use. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 2, 219-225.

Lehman, G.R., & Geller, E.S. (1990a). Educational strategies to increase children's use of safety belts: Are extrinsic rewards necessary? Heath Education Research, 5, 2, 187-196.

Leichter, H.M. (1991). Free to be foolish. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Leiss, W. (1990). Traffic safety and the media environment. In J.P. Rothe (Ed.), Challenging the old order: Toward new directions in traffic safety theory (pp. 149-164). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Leventhal, H., & Cameron, L. (1987). Behavioral theories and the problem of compliance. Patient Education and Counseling, 10, 117-138.

Liberato, C.P., Eriacho, B., Schmiesing, J., & Krump, M. (1989). Safesmart Safety Seat Intervention Project: A successful program for the medically-indigent. Patient Education and Counseling, 13, 161-170.

Limbourg, M., & Gerber, D. (1981). A parent training program for the road safety education of preschool children. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 13, 3, 255-267.

Lonero, L.P., & Pierce, J.P. (1981). History and evaluation of seat belt legislation in Ontario. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Occupant Restraint, Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Transportation and the American Association of Automotive Medicine.

Lonero, L.P., & Wilde, G.J.S. (1992). Getting your incentive program off the ground. Occupational Health & Safety Canada, September/October, 62-71.

Lonero, L.P., Clinton, K.M., Wilde, G.J.S., Roach, K., McKnight, A.J., MacLean, H., Guastello, S.J., & Lamble, R.W. (1994). The Roles of Legislation, Education, Enforcement, and Reinforcement in Changing Road User Behavior. Toronto. Ontario Ministry of Transportation, in press.

Ludwig, T., & Geller, E.S. (1991). Improving the driving practices of pizza delivers: Response generalization and moderating effects of driving history. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 1, 31-44.

Lund, A.K., & Williams, A.F. (1985). A review of the literature evaluating the defensive driving course. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 17, 6, 449-460.

Lund, A.K., Williams, A.F., & Zador, P. (1986). High school driver education: Further evaluation of the Dekalb County study. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 18, 4, 349-357.

Malenfant, L., & Van Houten, R. (1987). The effects of nighttime seat belt use enforcement on seat belt use by tavern patrons: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 271-276.

Malenfant, L., & Van Houten, R. (1989). Increasing the percentage of drivers yielding to pedestrians in three Canadian cities with a multifaceted safety program. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 275-279.

Malenfant, L., Van Houten, R., Hall, R.V., & Cahoon, G. (1985). The use of public posting, prompting, and police enforcement procedures to increase driver yielding and pedestrian signalling at marked crosswalks. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 4, 295-302.

Malfetti, J.L. (1986). Traffic Safety Communication Rating Scale (TSCRS) with guidelines for preparing and testing a safety message. Falls Church, VA: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.

Mann, R.E., Vingilis, E.R., Gavin, D., Adlaf, E., & Anglin, L. (1991). Sentence severity and the drinking driver: Relationships with traffic safety outcome. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 23, 6, 483-491.

Maring, W., & Van Schagen, I. (1990). Age dependence of attitudes and knowledge in cyclists. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 22, 2, 127-136.

Maroney, S., & Dewar, R. (1987). Alternatives to enforcement in modifying the speeding behavior of drivers. In Transportation Research Record 1111 (pp. 121-126). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Mashaw, J.L., & Harfst, D.L. (1990). The struggle for auto safety. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Mastrofski, S.D, Ritti, R.R., & Hoffmaster, D. (1987). Organizational determinants of police discretion. The case of drinking driving. Journal of Criminal Justice, 15, 387-402.

McAfee, B.R., & Winn, A.R. (1989). The use of incentives/feedback to enhance work place safety: A critique of the literature. Journal of Safety Research 20, 7-19.

McCormick, J., & Skrabanek, P. (1988). Coronary heart disease is not preventable by population interventions. The Lancet, October 8, 839-842.

McDavid, J.C., Lohrmann, B.A., & Lohrmann, G. (1989). Does motorcycle training reduce accidents? Evidence from a longitudinal quasi-experimental study. Journal of Safety Research, 20, 2, 61-72.

McGuire, W.J. (1984). Public communication as a strategy for inducing health-promoting behavioral change. Preventive Medicine, 13, 299-319.

McKinlay, J.B. (1993). The promotion of health through planned sociopolitical change: challenges for research and policy. Social Science Medicine, 36, 2, 109-117.

McKnight, A.J., & Klein, T.M. (1990). Relationship of 65-mph limit of speeds and fatal accidents. In Transportation Research Record 1281 (pp. 71-77). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

McKnight, A.J., Simone, G.A., & Weidman, J.R. (1982). Elderly driver retraining. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service.

McKnight, A.J. & Voas, R.B. (1991). The effect of license suspension upon DWI recidivism. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 7, 1, 43-54.

McLeroy, K.R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 4, 351-377.

Meier, S.E., Brigham, T.A., & Handel, G. (1984). Effects of feedback on legally intoxicated drivers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 45, 6, 528-533.

Mercer, G.W. (1985). The relationships among driving while impaired charges, police drinking-driving roadcheck activity, media coverage and alcohol-related casualty traffic accidents. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 17, 6, 467-474.

Michon, J.A. (1981). Traffic education for young pedestrians: An introduction. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 13, 3, 163-167.

Mittelmark, M.B., Jacobs, D.R., Carlaw, R.W., Finnegan, J., Jeffery, R.W., Mullis, R.M., Pechacek, T.F., & Pirie, P.L. (1986). Community-wide prevention of cardiovascular disease: Education strategies of the Minnesota Heart Health Program. Preventive Medicine, 15, 1-17.

Moore, D.W., & Adair, V. (1990). Effects of a school-based education programme on safety helmet usage by 11-13 year old cyclists. Educational Psychology, 10, 1, 73-78.

Morrow, R. (1989). A school-based program to increase seat belt use. The Journal of Family Practice, 29, 5, 517-520.

Mortimer, R.G. (1982). An evaluation of the Motorcycle Rider Course. In 26th Proceedings of the American Association for Automotive Medicine, Ottawa, Canada, October 4-6 (pp. 77-96). Arlington Heights, IL: American Association for Automotive Medicine.

Mortimer, R.G. (1988). A further evaluation of the motorcycle rider course. Journal of Safety Research, 19, 4, 187-196.

Mortimer, R.G. (1990). Effects of enforcement on the use of seat belts by drivers in selected cities in Illinois (Safety Research Report #90-14). Springfield, IL: Illinois Department of Transportation.

Moskowitz, J.M. (1989). The primary prevention of alcohol problems: A critical review of the research literature. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 1, 54-88.

Muelleman, R.L., Mlinek, E.J., & Collicott, P.E. (1992). Motorcycle crash injuries and costs: Effect of a reenacted comprehensive helmet use law. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 21, 3, 266-272.

Murdoch, P.A., & Wilde, G.J.S. (1980). Reward and punishment in driver control. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications.

The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC). (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the challenge. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nelson, G.D., & Moffit, P.B. (1988). Safety belt promotion: Theory and practice. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 20, 1, 27-38.

Nichols, J.L. (1990). Treatment versus deterrence. Alcohol Health and Research World, 14, 1, 44-51.

Nimmer, J.G., & Geller, E.S. (1988). Motivating safety belt use at a community hospital: An effective integration of incentive and commitment strategies. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 3, 381-394.

O'Malley, P.M., & Wagenaar, A.C. (1991). Effects of minimum drinking age laws on alcohol use, related behaviors and traffic crash involvement among American youth: 1976-1987. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 5, 478-491.

OECD (1986). Effectiveness of road safety education programmes. Paris: Road Transport Research.

OECD (1990). Behavioral adaptations to changes in the road transport system. Paris: Road Transport Research.

Ornstein, M. (1989). AIDS in Canada: Knowledge, behavior, and attitude of adults. Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press.

Ortega, J. (1990). Quelques reflexions sur la delinquance routiere et notamment le cas de l'ivresse au volant. Revue International de Criminologie et de Police Technique, 43, 3, 323-337.

Parker, D., Manstead, S.R., Stradling, S.G., & Reason, J.T. (1992) Determinants of intention to commit driving violations. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 24, 2, 117-131.

Peck, R.C. (1991). The general and specific deterrent effects of DUI sanctions: A review of California's experience. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 7, 1, 13-42.

Pfafferott, I. & Hugenin, R.D. (1991). Adaptation nach Einfuhrung von Sicherheitsmabnahmen. Zeitschrift fur Verkehrssicherheit, 37, 1, 71-83.

Potvin, L., Champagne, F., & Laberge-Nadeau, C. (1988). Mandatory driver training and road safety: The Quebec experience. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1206-1209.

Preston, B. (1980). Child cyclist accidents and cycling proficiency training. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 12, 1, 31-40.

Preusser, D.F. (1987). Delaying teenage licensure. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 4, 3-4, 283-295.

Preusser, D.F., & Blomberg, R.D. (1984). Reducing child pedestrian accidents through public education. Journal of Safety Research, 15, 2, 47-56.

Preusser, D.F., & Lund, A.K. (1988). And keep on looking: A film to reduce pedestrian crashes among 9 to 12 year olds. Journal of Safety Research, 19, 4, 177-185.

Price, R.H., Cowen, E.L., Lorion, R.P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (1989). The search for effective prevention programs: What we learned along the way. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 1, 49-58.

Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C., & Norcross, J.C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, September, 47, 1102-1114.

Radford, J.L., King, A.J.C., & Warren, W.K. (1989). Street youth & AIDS. Ottawa, Canada: Federal Centre for AIDS, Health and Welfare Canada.

Ragnarsson, R.S., & Bjorgvinsson, T. (1991). Effects of public posting on driving speed in Icelandic traffic. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 53-58.

Reinfurt, D.W., Campbell, B.J., Stewart, J.R., & Stutts, J.C. (1990). Evaluating the North Carolina safety belt wearing law. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 22, 3, 197-210.

Reisinger, K.S., Williams, A.F., Wells, J.K., John, C.E., Roberts, T.R., & Podgainy, H.J. (1981). Effect of pediatricians' counseling on infant restraint use. Pediatrics, 67, 2, 201-206.

Renaud, L., & Stolovitch, H. (1988). Simulation gaming: An effective strategy for creating appropriate traffic safety behaviors in five-year-old children. Simulation and Games, 19, 3, 328-345.

Renaud, L., & Suissa, S. (1989). Evaluation of the efficacy of simulation games in traffic safety education of kindergarten children. American Journal of Public Health, 79, 3, 307-309.

Roberts, M.C., Alexander, K., & Knapp, L.G. (1990). Motivating children to use safety belts: A program combining rewards and "Flash for Life." Journal of Community Psychology 18, April, 110-118.

Roberts, M.C., & Broadbent, M.H. (1989). Increasing preschooler's use of car safety devices: An effective program for day care staff. CHC, 18, 3, 157-162.

Roberts, M.C., Fanurik, D., & Wilson, D.R. (1988). A community program to reward children's use of seat belts. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 3, 395-407.

Roberts, M.C., & Layfield, D.A. (1987). Promoting child passenger safety: A comparison of two positive methods. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, pp. 257-271.

Roberts, M.C., & Turner, D.S. (1984). Preventing death and injury in childhood: A synthesis of child safety seat efforts. Health Education Quarterly, 11, 2, 181-193.

Roberts, M.C., & Turner, D.S. (1986). Rewarding parents for their children's use of safety seats. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11, 1, 25-35.

Robertson, L.S. (1980). Crash involvement of teenaged drivers when driver education is eliminated from high school. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 599-603.

Robertson, L.S. (1983). Injury epidemiology and the reduction of harm. In D. Mechanic (Ed.), Handbook of health, health care and the health professions (pp. 220-239). New York: The Free Press.

Robertson, L.S. (1984). Insurance incentives and seat belt use. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 10, 1157-1158.

Rogers, E.M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press.

Rogers, R.W., Rogers, J.S., Bailey, J.S., Runkle, W., & Moore, B. (1988). Promoting safety belt use among state employees: The effects of prompting and a stimulus-control intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 3, 263-269.

Ross, H.L. (1985). Deterring drunken driving: An analysis of current efforts. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supplement 10, 122-128.

Ross, H.L. (1987). Prevention of alcohol-related injuries through law enforcement and legislation. Public Health Reports, 102, 6, 623-625.

Ross, H.L. (1991a). License deprivation as a drunk-driver sanction. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 7, 1, 63-68.

Ross, H.L. (1991b). Punishment as a factor in preventing alcohol-related accidents. In Proceedings of the International Symposium "Alcohol-related accidents and injuries" Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland, December 2-5 (pp. 1-16).

Rothe, J.P., & Cooper, P.J. (1988). Never say always: Perspectives on safety belt use. North Vancouver, Canada: Insurance Corporation of British Columbia.

Rothengatter, T. (1982). The effects of police surveillance and law enforcement on driver behavior. Current Psychological Reviews, 2, 349-358.

Rothengatter, T. (1984). A behavioral approach to improving traffic behavior in young children. Ergonomics, 27, 2, 147-160.

Rothengatter, T. (1988). Risk and the absence of pleasure: A motivational approach to modelling road user behavior. Ergonomics, 31, 4, 599-607.

Rothengatter, T. (1991). Automatic policing and information systems for increasing traffic law compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 1, 85-87.

Rudd, J.R., & Geller, E.S. (1985). A university-based incentive program to increase safety belt use: Toward cost-effective institutionalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 3, 215-226.

Russ, N.W., Geller, E.S., Leland, Jr., L.S. (1989). Blood-alcohol level feedback: A failure to deter impaired driving. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 2, 3, 124-130.

Sali, G.J. (1983). Evaluation of Boise selective traffic enforcement project. In Transportation Research Record 910 (pp. 68-74). Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.

Saunders, S., & Pine, J. (1986). Seat belt education program - A model for public health settings. Health Education Quarterly, 13, 3, 243-247.

Schuster, D.H. (1978). Cognitive accident-avoidance training for beginning drivers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 3, 377-379.

Seekins, T., Fawcett, S.B., Cohen, S.H., Elder, J.P., Jason, L.A., Schnelle, J.F., & Winett, R.A. (1988). Experimental evaluation of public policy: The case of state legislation for child passenger safety. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 21, 3, 233-243.

Seeman, J. (1989). Toward a model of positive health. American Psychologist, 44, 8, 1099-1109.

Sherer, M., Friedmann, R., Rolider, A., & Van Houten, R. (1984). The effects of a saturation enforcement campaign on speeding in Haifa, Israel. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 12, 4, 425-430.

Shinar, D., & McKnight, A.J. (1985). The effects of enforcement and public information on compliance. In L. Evans & R.C. Schwing (Eds.), Human behavior and traffic safety (pp. 385-414). New York: Plenum Press.

Shinar, D., & Stiebel, J. (1986). The effectiveness of stationary versus moving police vehicles on compliance with speed limit. Human Factors, 28, 3, 365-371.

Shore, E.R., & Maguin, E. (1988). Deterrence of drinking-driving: The effect of changes in the Kansas driving under the influence law. Evaluation and Program Planning, 11, 245-254.

Siegrist, J. (1988). Models of health behavior. European Heart Journal, 9, 709-714.

Siegrist, S., & Ramseier, E. (1992). Evaluation of advanced driving courses. Bern, Switzerland: BFU.

Simons-Morton, B.G., Brink, S.G., & Bates, D. (1987). Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of persuasive communications and incentives in increasing safety belt use. Health Education Quarterly, 14, 2, 167-179.

Simons-Morton, B.G., Brink, S.G., Simons-Morton, D.G., McIntyre, R., Chapman, M., Longoria, J., & Parcel, G.S. (1989). An ecological approach to the prevention of injuries due to drinking and driving. Health Education Quarterly, 16, 3, 397-411.

Simons-Morton, D.G., Simons-Morton, B.G., Parcel, G.S., & Bunker, J.F. (1988). Influencing personal and environmental conditions for community health: A multilevel intervention model. Family Community Health, 11, 2, 25-35.

Simpson, H.M., & Mayhew, D.R. (1990). The promotion of motorcycle safety: Training, education, and awareness. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 257-264.

Single, E., & McKenzie, D. (1989). The contribution of licensed establishments to impaired driving in Ontario. Toronto, Ontario: Liquor Licence Board of Ontario.

Sleet, D.A., Hollenback, K., & Hovell, M. (1986). Applying behavioral principles to motor vehicle occupant protection. Education and Treatment of Children, 9, 4, 320-333.
Sleet, D.A., Wagenaar, A.C., & Waller, P.F. (1989). Drinking, driving, and health promotion. Health Education Quarterly, 16, 3, 327-334.

Smith, D.L. (1983). The Dekalb Driver Education Project--The same mistakes: Improper criteria. Journal of Traffic Safety Education, 30, 2.

Snortum, J.R. (1988). Deterrence of alcohol-impaired driving: An effect in search of a cause. In M.D. Laurence, J.R. Snortum & F.E. Zomring (Eds.), Social control of the drinking driver. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Snortum, J.R. (1990). Drinking-driving compliance in Great Britain: The role of law as a "threat" and as a "moral eye-opener." Journal of Criminal Justice, 18, 479-499.

Solomon, D.S., & Maccoby, N. (1984). Communication as a model for health enhancement. In J.D. Matarazzo, S.M. Weiss, J.A. Herd, N.E. Miller & S.M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 209-221). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sowers-Hoag, K.M., Thyer, B.A., & Bailey, J.S. (1987). Promoting automobile safety belt use by young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 2, 133-138.

Stock, J.R., Weaver, J.K., Ray, H.W., Brink, J.R., & Sadoff, M.G. (1983). Evaluation of safe performance secondary school driver education curriculum demonstration project. Final report. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Services.

Stokols, D. (1992). Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Toward a social ecology of health promotion. American Psychologist, 47, 1, 6-22.

Streff, F.M. (1991). Crash avoidance: New opportunities for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 1, 77-79.

Streff, F.M., Molnar, L.J., & Christoff, C. (1992). Increasing safety belt use in a secondary enforcement state: Evaluation of a three-county special enforcement program. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 24, 4, 369-383.

Streff, F.M., & Schultz, R.H. (1990). The 65-mph speed limit in Michigan: A second year analysis of effects on crashes and crash casualities. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.

Streff, F.M., Wagenaar, A.C., & Schultz, R.H. (1990). Reductions in police-reported injuries associated with Michigan's safety belt law. Journal of Safety Research, 21, 9-18.

Summala, H., Naatanen, R., & Roine, M. (1980). Exceptional condition of police enforcement: Driving speeds during the police strike. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 12, 179-184.

Supramaniam, V., Van Belle, G., & Sung, J.F.C. (1984). Fatal motorcycle accidents and helmet laws in peninsular Malaysia. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 16, 3, 157-162.

Svenson, O. (1978). Risks of road transportation in a psychological perspective. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 10, 4, 267-280.

Sykes, G.W. (1984). Saturated enforcement: The efficacy of deterrence and drunk driving. Journal of Criminal Justice, 12, 2, 185-197.

Syme, S.L. (1986). Strategies for health promotion. Preventive Medicine, 15, 492-507.

The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC). (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the challenge. New York: Oxford University Press.

Thyer, B.A., & Geller, E.S. (1987). The "Buckle-Up" dashboard sticker. Environment and Behavior, 19, 4, 484-494.

Tietge, N.S., Bender, S.J., & Scutchfield, F.D. (1987). Influence of teaching techniques on infant car seat use. Patient Education and Counseling, 9, 167-175.

Treiber, F.A. (1986). A comparison of the positive and negative consequences approaches upon car restraint usage. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11, 1, 15-24.

Tschernitschek, E. (1978). Verkehrssicherheitsprogramm eines Vertriebsunternehmens. Berufsgenossenschaft, February.

Tsebelis, G. (1989). Abuse of probability in political analysis: The Robinson Crusoe fallacy. American Political Science Review, 83, 1, 77-79.

Tunbridge, R.J. (1989). The long term effect of seat belt legislation on road user injury patterns (Research Report 239). Crowthorne, Berkshire: Transport and Road Research Labratory.

Tyler, T.R., & Cook F.L. (1984). The mass media and judgments of risk: Distinguishing impact on personal and societal level judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 4, 693-708.

University of Edinburgh, Research Unit in Health and Behavioral Change. (1989). Changing the public health. London: John Wiley & Sons.

van der Molen, H.H. (1981). Child pedestrian's exposure, accidents and behavior. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 13, 3, 193-224.

Van Houten, R., Malenfant, L., & Rolider, A. (1985b). Increasing driver yielding and pedestrian signalling with prompting, feedback and enforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 2, 103-110.

Van Houten, R., & Nau, P.A. (1981). A comparison of the effects of posted feedback and increased police surveillance on highway speeding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 3, 261-271.

Van Houten, R., & Nau, P.A. (1983). Feedback interventions and driving speed: A parametric and comparative analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 3, 253-281.

Van Houten, R., Rolider, A., Nau, P.A., Friedman, R., Becker, M., Chalodovsky, I., & Scherer, M. (1985a). Large-scale reductions in speeding and accidents in Canada and Israel: A behavioral ecological perspective. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 1, 87-93.

VanderPlatt, M. (1988). Nobody's Perfect: Executive Summary of the process and impact evaluation report. Ottawa, Canada: Health and Welfare Canada.

Vartiainen, E., Korhonen, H.J., Pietinen, P., Tuomilehto, J., Kartovaara, L., Nissinen, A., & Puska, P. (1991). Fifteen-year trends in coronary risk factors in Finland, with special reference to North Karelia. International Journal of Epidemiology, 20, 3, 651-662.

Vegega, M.E., & Klitzner, M.D. (1988). What have we learned about youth anti-drinking-driving programs? Evaluation and Program Planning, 11, 203-217.

Vegega, M.E., & Klitzner, M.D. (1989). Drinking and driving among youth: A study of situational risk factors. Health Education Quarterly, 16, 3, 373-388.

Vingilis, E. (1987). The six myths of drinking-driving prevention. Health Education Research, 2, 2, 145-149.

Vingilis, E., & Vingilis, V. (1987). The importance of roadside screening for impaired drivers in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 29, 1, 17-33.

Voas, R.B. (1982). Selective enforcement during prime-time drinking-driving hours: A proposal for increasing deterrence without increasing enforcement costs. Abstracts and Reviews in Alcohol and Driving, 3, 10-12, 3-14.

Voas, R.B. (1986). Evaluation of jail as a penalty for drunk driving. Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving, 2, 2, 47-70.

Votey, Jr., H.L. (1984). Recent evidence from Scandinavia on deterring alcohol impaired driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 16, 2, 123-138.

Wagenaar, A.C., Maybee, R.G., & Sullivan, K.P. (1988). Mandatory seat belt laws in eight states: A time-series evaluation. Journal of Safety Research, 19, 2, 51-70.

Wegman, F.C.M., Mulder, J.A.G., & Gundy, C.M. (1987). Promoting the use of safety belts in the Netherlands. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service.

Weisbruch, J.B. (1987). The prevention of injury from motorcycle use: Epidemiologic success, legislative failure. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 19, 1, 21-28.

Weiss, B.D., & Duncan, B. (1986). Bicycle helmet use by children: Knowledge and behavior of physicians. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 1022-1023.

West, S.G., Hepworth, J.T., McCall, M.A., & Reich, J.W. (1989). An evaluation of Arizona's July 1982 drunk driving law: Effects on the city of Phoenix. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 14, 1212-1237.

Whitworth, R.A. (1983). An advanced driver education program. General Motors Special Publication 4637.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1985a). The use of incentives for the promotion of accident-free driving. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supplement 10, 161-167.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1985b). Incentive programmes: An alternative approach to accident reduction among young drivers. In D.R. Mayhew, H.M. Simpson & A.C. Donelson (Eds.), Young driver accidents: In search of solutions. Ottawa, Canada: Traffic Injury Research Foundation of Canada.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1988a). Risk homeostasis theory and traffic accidents: Propositions, deductions and discussion of dissension in recent reactions. Ergonomics, 31, 4, 441-468.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1988b). Incentives for safe driving and insurance management. In C.A. Osborne (Ed.), Report of Inquiry into Motor Vehicle Accident Compensation in Ontario, Volume II (pp. 464-511). Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General and Ontario Ministry of Financial Institutions.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1991). Effects of mass media communications upon health and safety habits of individuals: An overview of issues and evidence. Paper presented at the International Symposium: "Alcohol-Related Accidents and Injuries" Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland, Dec. 2-5.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1993a). Improve risk perception and reduce risk acceptance: Two proposals for driver education. Proceedings. Working conference on novice driver education, University of Alberta, Edmonton, April 22-23.

Wilde, G.J.S. (1993b). Effects of mass media communications on health and safety habits: an overview of issues and evidence. Addiction, 88, 983-996.

Wilde, G.J.S., & Ackersviller, M.J. (1981). Accident journalism and traffic safety education: A three-phase investigation of accident reporting in the Canadian daily press. Ottawa, Canada: Transport Canada.

Wilde, G.J.S., & Murdoch, P.A. (1982). Incentive systems for accident-free and violation-free driving in the general population. Ergonomics, 25, 10, 879-890.
Williams, A.F., Lund, A.K., & Preusser, D.F. (1985). Night driving curfews in New York and Louisiana: Results of a questionnaire survey. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 17, 6, 461-466.

Williams, A.F., Lund, A.K., Preusser, D.F., & Blomberg, R.D. (1987b). Results of a seat belt use law enforcement and publicity campaign in Elmira, New York. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 19, 4, 243-249.

Williams, A.F., Preusser, D.F., Blomberg, R.D., & Lund, A.K. (1987c). Seat belt use law enforcement and publicity in Elmira, New York: A reminder campaign. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 11, 1450-1451.

Williams, A.F., Wells, J.K., & Lund, A.K. (1987a). Shoulder belt use in four states with belt use laws. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 19, 4, 251-260.

Williams, M., Thyer, B.A., Bailey, J.S., & Harrison, D.F. (1989). Promoting safety belt use with traffic signs and prompters. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 1, 71-76.

Winter, D.J. (1984). Needs and problems of older drivers and pedestrians: An exploratory study with teaching/learning implications. Educational Gerontology, 10, 135-146.

Wittingslow, G.E. (1983). Investigation of factors significantly affecting child seat belt usage. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 15, 4, 267-274.

Wynne-Jones, J.D., & Hurst, P.M. (1984). The AA driver training evaluation (Traffic Research Report No. 33). Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Transport.

Yeaton, W.H., & Bailey, J.S. (1983). Utilization analysis of a pedestrian safety training program. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 2, 203-216.

Young, D.S., & Lee, D.N. (1987). Training children in road crossing skills using a roadside simulation. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 19, 5, 327-341.

Zador, P.L., Lund, A.K., Fields, M., & Weinberg, K. (1989). Fatal crash involvement and laws against alcohol-impaired driving. Journal of Public Health Policy, 10, 4, 467-485.

Return to Table of Contents

Further comments to this article have been disabled.

---

All Comments (1)

Showing 1 - 1 comments

lion,

---